English 311,"Introduction
to Linguistics"
by Sherine
| Overview
| Statement of Problem | Bilingual Education
| Limitations of Information
|
| Objectives | Definition of Terms
| What is the role of bilingual education?
|
| History
| Political Pressures
| Poverty, Education and Limited English Skills|
| Comments
| Implications of research|
Overview
For years bilingual education in the United States of America has been
surrounded by controversy. US public schools began offering bilingual education
programs in 1968. They were designed to help English Language Learners to become
proficient in English while giving them an opportunity to be successful in
academics.
In general those who have some interest in bilingual education would agree
that learning to speak English is essential to success in school, employment and
overall social interaction. In primary education it is generally understood that
students who cannot read midway through elementary school continue to experience
literacy-related difficulties throughout their years of formalized learning.
These students are often retained, placed in special education and in long term
remedial programs (ECS Online, 1999). Therefore, stakeholders in bilingual
education must ensure that Limited-English Proficient (LEP) students receive
effectively designed instructional programs propelling them toward
proficiency in reading, writing, and speaking English.
Back to Top
Statement of Problem
For more than 30 years bilingual education has flourished as a controversial
issue in how best to teach LEP students. Although both proponents and opponents
of bilingual education claim to represent the best interest of LEP students,
their positions vary greatly. When bilingual education was first enacted in
1968, the purpose was to address the needs of students whose poor academic
performance was a result of insufficient English instruction. The belief was
that if LEP students were taught some subjects in their primary language,
they could still learn English without jeopardizing content knowledge in their
primary or new language. Additionally, the belief held that content knowledge
newly learned in their first language would gradually transfer to their new
language, English. Thus, LEP students could learn in both their primary language
and in English while transferring content knowledge from their first language to
their new one.
However, opponents of bilingual education maintain that
without full immersion in the new language, students would develop a native
language dependency that ultimately would affect their progress in English
language acquisition (Education Week, 1999). Today, the debate continues as to
what is the most effective way of educating bilingual students.
Back to Top
Bilingual Education
In a country like the United States, where English literacy is so essential
to mobility, people must be able to speak the language. People who are not able
read, write and speak the language are subject to severe socio-economic
hardships. Critical areas include transportation, housing, consumer affairs and
employment. Students who are not literate in English may experience difficulties
in traveling, housing, shopping and work. The results could lead to isolation,
depression, alcoholism, drugs, crime and incarceration. It is in the best
interest of the government to provide bilingual education programs that have
been proven effective. Otherwise, taxpayer can expect to spend more money
dealing with the various impacts on the lack English literacy.
Limitations of Information
The available research is limited to the following factors:
- Demographically, statistical data from bilingual education studies usually
consist of students from low–income families. It is difficult to determine
the success of academic programs when students come to school with issues
that are not related to school.
- Parental involvement can take many dimensions and school achievement is
influenced by a family process variable, or by how families influence
specific school related activities. Although some studies discussed parental
involvement as a variable, the impact on the child can not be determined
with certainty.
Goals/Objectives/Purpose
This research paper has several objectives:
- to state the role of bilingual education,
- to state the history of bilingual education in the US,
- to state the issues surrounding the controversy associated with bilingual
education, and
- to state how poverty and the education of the parents of limited-English
students factor into bilingual education.
Back to Top
Definition of Terms
- Bilingual Education— Bilingual education is a means to make it
possible for linguistically diverse children to achieve the same challenging
academic standards required of all children enrolled in America’s schools
(Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs, 1995). Many
proponents of bilingual education often distinguished the approach from
"immersion."
- Immersion
—Many opponents of bilingual education advocate
"immersing" students in English academic settings as opposed to the
more gradual approach recommended by proponents of bilingual education.
- Effectiveness
—An effective program achieves its desired effect.
- Limited-English Proficiency (LEP)
—This terms encompasses English
language learners (ELL), whose level of English, reading, writing, speaking or
comprehending, interferes with school performance.
- Parental Involvement
—This term refers to activities occurring between
a parent and a child, or between a parent and school, that may contribute to the
child’s educational development.
America is a diverse country with people from many cultures and
nationalities. The number of limited-English proficient students is predicted to
rise to unprecedented levels shortly beyond 2000. Faced with this growth,
policy-makers and educators continue to search for well-designed instructional
programs and/or approaches that yield the most favorable results.
What is the role of bilingual education?
Bilingual education is a means to make it possible for linguistically diverse
children to achieve the same challenging academic standards required of all
children enrolled in America’s public schools. Bilingual education gives ELL
an equal access to education and an opportunity to achieve academic excellence
(Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs, 1995). Stated
simply, bilingual education programs are designed with the goal to: 1) to help
limited-English proficient students become proficient in their new language, and
2) to help limited English proficient students achieve the same academic success
as those students whose primary language is English. For many years, it was
thought that well-designed instructional programs were those that taught
students in their primary language. It was believed that students were able to
become proficient in their secondary language through their primary language.
These students were still able to learn subject area competence.
The role of bilingual education has two major premises:
- All children are capable of engaging in complex thinking tasks
– The
potential to achieve high levels of cognitive functioning is a property of the
human species and is accessible to all children provided they receive high
quality instruction and follow a challenging curriculum.
- Developing and maintaining the native language in no way interferes with
English language acquisition
– studies in bilingual classroom supports
that using the primary language enhances the acquisition of a second language
(Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs, 1995).
Back to Top
History of Bilingual Education in the United States
Linguistic diversity is not a new issue in our country. At the time of the
nation’s first census in 1790, French, Spanish, Irish, Dutch, Swedish, and
Welsh were well represented, not to mention more than 300 indigenous languages.
Meanwhile, German Americans accounted for 8.6 percent of the population (a
proportion comparable to that of Hispanic Americans, 9.0 percent, exactly two
centuries later (Crawford, 1995).
In the 1950’s, cultural deprivation theory was viewed as an acceptable
perspective. The theory rejected genetics as an explanation for underachievement
by minority students. The theory instead addressed the environmental factors in
explaining underachievement: "parents’ failure to stress educational
attainment, lower-class values that favored living in the present" rather
than planning for the future, and inadequate English language skills." W.
I. Thomas, a sociologist said that it was the job of the school to make sure
that children master the language and values of the dominant society. Thomas
believed that it is the responsibility of the school to change the culture of
students. By doing this, students would be able to assimilate in the culture
(Crawford, 1997). From that moment on bilingual education in America has been a
topic of discussion.
Back to Top
Political Pressures
Controversy surrounds all aspects of bilingual education. Political pressures
from community members often influence politicians, who limit support for
bilingual education programs. Politicized research agendas have produced
evaluative research findings both for and against bilingual education programs,
and the theoretical positions taken on the interaction of mind and language have
clashed throughout the twentieth century (VDT Online, 1999)
When President Clinton set his educational goal for year 2000, he pictured
Americans being international academic leaders in math, science, and critical
thinking. However, schools in the US had another problem: students were not
proficient in English. "Many students lack proficiency in the academic
English necessary for successful schooling." (VTD Online, 1999)
The primary language of nearly 3,000,000 students in the US is not English.
Beyond 2000 the numbers are expected to increase. These students whose primary
language is not English were found in mainly California, New York, Florida and
Texas.
With such a large number of students lacking proficiency in English,
politicians are getting involved. In 1998 Congress considered 17 bills
pertaining to ELL. Although none of these bills were passed, the mere fact that
Congress looked at 17 bills was a major accomplishment.
One bill Congress considered was The National Language Act in March 1997.
This bill would have made English the official language of the United States.
The bill gathered over 50 sponsors in the Congress. English Plus, an
organization, is opposed to this bill. The organization advocated embracing
America’s diversity by supporting both ESL and bilingual education programs
(VDT Online, 1999).
Proposition 227 passed in California about 1 year ago. The bill requires ELL
students be fully immersed in an "English-only" classroom. The bill
states that after one year of English instruction students would be mainstreamed
in a regular classroom. Proponents that supported Proposition 227 believe that
the State of California was spending too much money catering to bilingual
children. Opponents believe that the passing of Proposition 227 would be more
costly to taxpayers because there is no assurance that mainstreaming students is
effective. In addition, language barriers in English-only schools prevent LEP
parents from helping with homework and consulting with teachers. This often
isolates them from school functions.
Back to Top
Poverty, Education and Limited English Skills
Congress found that many Americans who are not proficient in English have
limited education and income. The 1990census counted 14 million people. Of that
14 million, 6 percent of people in the population were reported as having
difficulty with English. This group was 12 times more likely to have completed
less than five years of schooling and half as likely to have graduated from high
school compared to English speakers. In addition, children from such households
were 50 percent more likely to live in poverty. Prospects, a national study,
indicated that 54% of LEP children in grades 1and 3 came from families with
income of less than $15,000. At all grade levels, 77% of LEP students qualified
for free or reduced price lunch (Crawford, 1997).
"Poverty is associated with numerous social ills that affect children’s
readiness to learn, including health problems, crime-ridden neighborhoods,
substandard housing, domestic violence, substance abuse, and family mobility, as
parents move frequently to find work. For LEP immigrant and refugee children,
these difficulties are often exacerbated by the stress of adjusting to a new
culture" (Crawford, 1997).
Back to Top
Writer’s Comments
The most important variable in any program’s effectiveness is quality.
Teachers need to be given adequate training to teach ELL students. Since there
is a shortage of bilingual teachers in California, many teachers do not hold the
necessary training to teach LEP students. Therefore, students are may not be
getting quality instruction whether or not they are mainstreamed. I feel that
whatever program the citizens of California agree on, we need to focus on making
sure students are receiving quality instruction. Once it has been determined
that students are consistently receiving quality instruction, we can truly
determine the effectiveness of bilingual programs.
Implications of research
Perhaps for years to come bilingual education will continue to be a center of
controversy. Stakeholders in the debate over bilingual education will continue
to remodel old arguments in favor and against how best to deal with ELL.
Hopefully, as we move through the new millennium, educators and politicians, and
others who have a vested interest in bilingual education will find some common
ground upon which to resolve the issues that seem to create divides. While some
LEP students are not finding success because of the lack of English proficiency,
the debate goes on. Meanwhile, students are not learning or achieving. Hopefully
we will see in the future an approach that is universal in terms of both support
and effectiveness. This way, children can learn and educators and politicians
can find some meaning from this long-lasting American controversy.
Bibliography
Crawford, J. (1999) . Best Evidence: Research Foundations of the Bilingual
Education Act [On-line].
Available: http://www.ncbe.org
Crawford, J. (1995) . Bilingual Education: History, Politics, Theory and
Practice (Rev. ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Crane.
ECS Online, (1999) . Reading: What Policymakers Need to Know
[On-line].
Available: http://www.ecs.org
Education Week, (1999) . Bilingual Education [On-line].
Available: http://www.edweek.org
Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs, (1996). What
is the role of bilingual education? [On-line].
Available: http://www.ncbe.gwu.edu/library/policy/index.htm
VDT Online, (1999) . Controversy surrounds all aspects of bilingual
education [On-line].
Available: http: www.scholar.lib.rt.edu/theses