>Maxim of Quantity: do not give too much or too little information; but, give enough in order to keep the conversation going/ further the conversation.

>Maxim of Relation: be relevant within the conversation

- Understanding how we draw conversational inferences is important

Grice’s cooperative principle: pg. 82- two people engaging in conversation; one the hearer (receiving the messages) & two, the speaker (doing the talking)à Both are actively contributing to further the conversation

*This is a necessity b/c if we didn’t practice this principle, listeners would have no way of knowing when others are lying or telling the truth & language would seize to be of value to us, language would break down. Also, to protect the integrity of the English language.

Semantics (pg. 97) the study of meaning of a language

Synonyms: two words that are synonymous if they have in some way the same meaning (degrees of similarity—different levels of appropriateness as well)

Ex: Couch & sofa; condo & apartment; die & pass away

Homonyms: two words that have the same phonetic form but have different meanings

Ex: bare/bear; sail/sale; tale/tail

Antonymy: two word that are in some way opposite in meaning; complementary pairs- if one word is applicable, the other cannot be

Ex: single/ married; alive/ dead; cold/ hot; big/ little; tall/ short

Extra credit: Ambiguous sentences pg. 60

Example: The woman read the book on the sofa

1. She was on the sofa while reading the book
2. She read the book prior, & the book itself is now lying on the sofa

*Know how to diagram them in the two interpretations:

Adjectival= PP that modifies noun (turns into a NP before the VP)

Adverbial= PP that modifies verb (PP connects with VP)

Phonetic transcription (word into IPA and IPA into conventional spelling. 24 points.) Separate phonemes or allophones of the same phoneme (3 points)

1. English cheap [c with a v on top] and jeep [j with a v on top] Question is, are the c and j separate phonemes or allophones of the same phoneme? They are different sounds in what is otherwise a minimal pair and because the words convey different meanings, therefore separate phonemes.

2. Sindi which is India Pakistan [p] and [p with h atop it to the right]

Linguists: look at three organizational sound patterns in a language:

Vowels -- The most intense, audible sounds in speech, vowels are produced with relatively open vocal tract. Vowels usually function as syllabi nuclei, and consonants that surround them depend on the vowel for audibility.

Derivational and inflectional affixes, like on page 47, number 3 or 4. See workbook.

Derivational morphemes may change the meaning or lexical category of a word.

Inflectional -- do not change the meaning. Required by syntax. They are very productive. For example, adding "s" to the end of most nouns makes the noun plural. Does not change the meaning. In English, there are eight inflectional changes possible: (s as 3rd per. sing present) (ed for past tense), (ing for progressive) (ed for past participle , ex: Jack has eaten the cookies) (s for plural) (the ’s for possessive), (er for comparative), and (est for superlative).

Content word: words that carry meaning in a sentence, usually stressed in sentence pronunciation: Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.

Function words: determiners, auxiliary verbs, prepositions

In detecting the lexical category (or part of speech) of a word, one must consider the morphological (1) and syntactic (2) frames of the word. In other words, 1) what morphemes are commonly used with the word and (2) what is the position (syntax) in which the word occurs within a sentence. (Normally, I look at position, but there can be morphemes added that will change the word. His WB contained the word "car" which can be changed into plural with "s", which becomes a new morpheme.) Then he lists dozens of suffixes like acy, ent, age, ate, er, tive, ster, ful etc. These are not words in themselves, but when added can change into new morpheme.

syntax sets out to explain the phenomena, or answer the question, why is it that we can properly use or understand a word in our language that we have not heard before, but that we can spontaneously produce and understand new sentences? Because of syntax rules we learn as students of that language. Two reasons: Linear Order and

Constituency -- sentences have internal hierarchical structure. Individual words in a sentence are organized into natural, semantically coherent groupings, which are formed into larger groupings, and the largest grouping of all is called a sentence. The groupings called constituents.

Lexical Categories:

Derivational process is more complex, and may change meaning or lexical category, i.e. noun becomes a verb, verb a noun, etc.

Syntax does not require presence of derivational morphemes. Emphasize. Re-emphasize, doesn’t change class. Not very productive, and are generally selective with what they combine with.

Morphemes are pairing of sounds with meanings, not spellings with meanings.

S (arrow pointing right, which means "may consist of") NP VP

1. Ingrid hit the ball.

2. The baseball player hit the ball.

3. The baseball player hit the ball over the fence. (PP modifies hit, where ball was hit)

4. The man with the red hat hit the baseball. (PP with the hat modifies man, therefore adjective.)

5. John has read the book on the shelf. (PP tells where book was, not that John was on shelf.)

6. Yuri cleaned her room in the morning.

7. The car was purchased by the couple.

Four sub-parts that help us understand the speech act:

Indirect Speech Acts --

Can you pick me up at the airport? (husband to wife)

1. Interrogative.

2. Directive

3. Indirect speech act.

I declare, under penalty of perjury, to state the whole truth.

1. Declarative.

2. Assertion.

3. Direct Speech act.

There shouldn’t be any talking in her right now. (Teacher to students).

1. Declarative.

2. Directive.

3. Indirect speech act.

Don’t walk away.

1. Imperative.

2. Directive.

3. Direct

Is that a Monarch butterfly?

1. Interrogative

2. Question.

3. Direct.

Can you empty the dishwasher for me? Family member.

1. Interrogative.

2. Directive.

3. Indirect.

Gee, it’s cold in here. (Wife says to husband.)

1. Declarative.

2. Directive.

3. Indirect.

Conversational Analysis page 89, 90 and 91 (most arguments between two people are a questioning of the evidence offered by other party. Relation and quality are the two big ones, most likely to be on test. Remember, quality, we check to see if the utterance is truthful and if there is a sincere effort to offer valid evidence. Relation, we check to see if the utterance relates back to previous statement with some kind of logic. If not, then there is a violation of Grice’s rule of relation.

Part 5 continued: Conversational Analysis: Grice’s maxims of quantity, quality, and relation, as on page 87 in workbook. This rules says that you must be relevant in the conversation. Central to orderliness of conversation -- it limits topic shifts. The rule states that two people in a conversation will mutually cooperate. There are maxims of quality, relation and quantity.

Know the stages of child language acquisition, age each stage begins:

Theories of Child Language Acquisition: (three of them)

Theories of Adult Language Acquisition: (page 135)

1. Critical period theory: after certain critical period or age, humans lose the innate language acquisition abilities they had as children for acquiring a second language. Period is six months to puberty. People past this period rarely acquire a second language as accurately as children.

2. Competition theory: competing cognitive models theory. Innate language abilities haven’t shut down, but now must compete with so many other things happening in a person’s life. Brain, therefore, cannot spend so much time learning a language as before.

3.No difference theory. The person is not passed the critical period, and the person is not cognitively competing, but other factors affect an adult’s ability to learn a second language:

a. Environment: does not provide as much exposure.

b. Psychological factors: anxiety, frustration, prejudice, attitude, and motivation.

c. Interferences from L1. Phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic. Morphological and syntactic frames interfere as learner transfers the patterns from L1 to L2. Remember, Japanese speaker follows pattern SOV, and Spanish speaker applies adjs after the noun they modify, as in "Look at the car red," compared to English speakers who put adjectives before the noun.

d. Review pages 176

Biological versus Environmental: From biological point of view, brain development dominants the language development process. As the brain develops during childhood, so does a child’s language. Some scientists claim that babies during infancy, during that period when they babble, make all of the sounds found in all of the languages world-wide. But, as they continue to develop, and learn what becomes their native tongue, then they drop those other sounds.

All over the world children begin to use language at the same time, in similar ways. What factors may set language in motion in a child Is it something in the environment that triggers the child and makes the child want to learn a language? Or is there some kind of internal biological clock that is set into motion causing the child internally and automatically to begin to learn a language. Most researchers argue that the period from infancy to puberty is the key language learning time.

Stages of child language acquisition.

1. Behavior emerges before it is necessary (i.e. speech behavior).
2. Emergence of language is not triggered by external event.
3. There is likely to be critical period for language acquisition.
4. Direct teaching and intensive practice have relatively little effect on child’s ability to learn language.

Environmental point of view: Children learn based on their desire to learn. Children begin to use language when praised. They mimic sounds, as if they are practicing… They respond to language when read to them.

Appalachian English has been identified as a dialect -- From Linguistic point of view, makes a more consistent use of words.

What is covert prestige and when might it be used? 10 points -- Prestige in this context means respect. The use of such a non-standard dialect helps speaker gain respect and prestige amongst other users of the same dialect. This was expressed in film we saw in class.

Accent versus dialect: explain how they are different? 10 points. The term "accent" has to do with pronunciation. The term "dialect" has a much broader meaning and is associated with a particular area or group of speakers within a country, often associated with a so-called "substandard form" of English. A dialect also is spoken language; it does not have a literary tradition. It must be mutually intelligible by members of the group. A dialect is identified as a separate dialect if it can be found that words have passed from generation to generation, and thus have historical origins, typically that can be traced back more than 200 years. If a vocabulary is limited to a single generation, then it is referred to as "slang." In Linguistics, there is no single dialect that is better than another.

The term "language" refers to several groups and the language spoken in country. Because of cultural or political purposes, two mutually intelligible languages may be considered separate when used in different countries, such as is the case in Norway and Denmark, where the language are known as Danish and Norwegian. They are considered to be separate languages. To confuse matters further, two unintelligible languages may be considered the same, for political reasons, such as Mandarin and Cantonese in China. Writing is same in both languages, but they are not mutually intelligible. Speakers of a dialect, in addition to different pronunciations, also demonstrate use of different phonological characteristics, and morphological frames, such as (a-washing), syntactic frames (might could), and pragmatic features, such as Southern speech acts that go directly to the point, rather than a language style that "beats" around the bush.

Defend Appalachian English from a linguistic point of view. Give three reasons why it is not an inferior form of English. 10 points.

Answer: There is a logical argument for maintaining that Appalachian English is a valid dialect. It meets the linguistic definition of a dialect, which is a language form that has been present for more than 200 years; it is mutually understood by a group of people, and it has a consistent morphological and syntactic structure. For example, milk becomes (maelk) and red becomes (rId), which are examples of consistent phonetic vowel expressions. Word stress also is consistent, with stress often on the first syllable. Detroit becomes Detroit, with stress on the D. This is a feature of Anglo Saxon English where often the stress was on the first syllable of a word. Another consistent variation in morphological formations comes with the assertion of the letter "a" before certain words, such as "I am a-washing," again a common feature of an earlier form of English spoken in England. The "a" prefix has its origins back to the 12th century and "ain’t" also was a prestige word in England in the 17th century. In fact, that word might be on its way back into common, accepted English. There also are consistent use of double modal forms such as "I might could go to the party" and the use of double negatives, such as "He ain’t never done that." See page 186 in workbook. In defense of such language formations, speakers of this dialect are using morphological and syntactic forms that once were accepted in Standard English. Therefore, to be ruled an inferior dialect would be an arbitrary distinction based on cultural standards, rather than because the dialect fails to provide a consistent language form for expressing complex thoughts and feelings.

Defend Black English from a linguistic point of view. Give three reasons why it is not an inferior form of English. Answer: This dialect too employs different phonological features that remain consistent as exemplified by speakers of the dialect. For example, speakers of this dialect drop a consonant sound in words that have double consonant formations in Standard American English. Therefore, cold [kold} becomes [kol]. and best becomes [bes]. Users of the dialect also drop the third person singular "S" which is used in Standard American English. Speakers of this dialect would say "He need to go to the store." for the expression "he needs to go to the store." And, "he needs a book, becomes "He need a book." Speakers of this dialect also employ the use of double negatives, as already explained in Appalachian English -- "I don’t need no food." There also is a consistent use of the verb "to be." For example, in standard English the form would be "The coffee is cold" becomes "The coffee be cold." William Labov, Professor of Linguistics at U of Pennsylvania, has noted that the African American Vernacular English shares most of its grammar and vocabulary with other dialects of English. But, he said, it is distinct in many ways, and it is more different from standard English than any other dialect spoken in continental North America. It is not simply a slang, or grammatical mistakes, but a well-formed set of rules of pronunciation and grammar that is capable of conveying complex logic and reasoning.

What are two possible origins of Black English? See page 320 in the textbook. See workbook page 192. There are two different theories on the origin of Black English. First, the dialectologists, which believe the dialect came from language learned from slave handlers, therefore tracing the dialect back to the language spoken in England. The Creolist believe, in contrast, that the language stems from lands from which slaves came, including West African sources. Labov reported that linguists were divided in their views of the origin of African American English; whether it was a Southern regional dialect descended from nonstandard English and Irish dialects, or the descendant of a Creole grammar similar to that spoken in the Caribbean. By 1980, a consensus seemed to have been reached, as expressed in the verdict of Judge Charles Joyner in the King trail in Ann Arbor, this variety of language showed the influence of the entire history of the African American people from slavery to modern times, and was gradually converging with other dialects. However, research that followed found that in many of its important features, African American Vernacular English was becoming not less, but more different from other dialects. Research on the language of ex-slaves showed that some of the most prominent features of the modern dialect were not present inn the 19th century. It appears that the present-day form is not the inheritance of the period of slavery, but the creation of the second half of the 20th century.

Should Black English be taught in the elementary and high schools? Give two reasons for and two reasons against teaching this dialect in public schools. The topic of whether Black English should be taught in schools is controversial. It is presumed that such teaching would include grammar instruction and preparation of reading materials in this dialect. Some have argued that we should not allow such teaching that result in divisiveness in our society, and that it will only confuse children and reinforce it instead of their learning and growth in standard English. Others argue that it would be proper. They argue that children learn most rapidly in their home language, and that they can benefit in both motivation and achievement by getting a head start in learning to read and write in this way. William Labov, Professor at Linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania, noted that See page 192 at the bottom, with two reasons given by L, at the bottom.

Name three linguistic features of Spanish Influenced English. Phonology -- Chicano English uses Spanish vowel system, thus only the vowels i, e, u, o, a, but no I. Therefore in Standard English, the word Ship would be pronounced as in ship, but in Spanish English would be pronounced sheep. This dialect also uses multiple negatives such as I don’t have no money, I don’t want nothing, reflecting use of double negatives in Spanish, and would include "code switching" which is switching from one language to another in a single sentence. It is now ocho y media on Saturday night. That is mucho good.